Cognitivism

The Cognitivism theory of learning focuses on how individuals use mental processes and strategies to direct and monitor their own learning. Michela (2020) explains that research on cognitivism emerged in the 1920s and 1930s through the work of Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Köhler, and Ivan Krechevsky, though it did not gain major traction in educational research until the 1950s.

Within this theory, learning begins when a person takes in information through the senses and it enters working memory. Attention then determines which sensory inputs to filter out and which to continue processing. Executive control processes help the learner interpret the information and decide whether it should be rehearsed, connected to prior knowledge, or committed to long-term memory (Michela, 2020). Memory itself is the system through which the brain encodes, stores, and later retrieves information (Emory, 2019).

Long Term Memory

Long-term memory is where information that has been learned is stored in an organized way (Emory, 2019). Information can be stored as verbal representations or as visual images (Michela, 2020).

Encoding

Michela (2020) defines encoding as the process through which information rehearsed in working memory is transferred into long-term memory. New pieces of information are connected to existing knowledge structures, or schemas, within the brain. This connection is essential for later recall—when one piece of information is activated, it can trigger related concepts within the schema. The process of adding or linking new information to existing knowledge is known as elaboration. This linking not only strengthens memory but also supports understanding, as learners can make sense of new information through the familiar frameworks they already possess.

Cognitive Load

Emory (2019) defines cognitive load as the amount of information a person can accurately process in their short-term or working memory. Research generally suggests that people can handle between four and seven bits of information at a time, though this can vary among individuals. When too much information is presented, learners may experience cognitive overload, which prevents effective processing and retention. For this reason, teachers and instructional designers must carefully structure instruction to optimize the use of working memory and prevent overload, allowing for deeper learning and better long-term retention.

Learning Theorists

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura is credited with developing Social Cognitive Theory. Hoose (n.d.) explains that Bandura emphasized the importance of cognitive factors—such as thinking, reasoning, and interpretation—alongside environmental influences in shaping how people learn. Bandura published foundational work beginning in 1977 and continuing throughout the 1990s.

One key concept he introduced is reciprocal determinism. This principle suggests that behavior, personal cognitive processes, and environmental context constantly interact and influence one another (Hoose, n.d.). In other words, learning is shaped not just by what a person does or what happens to them, but also by how they think about those experiences.

Hoose (n.d.) also describes observational learning, in which individuals learn by watching others’ behaviors and the consequences that follow. A learner may choose to imitate a behavior if the model was reinforced for it. Conversely, if the model was punished, the observer is less likely to repeat the behavior. While this idea is similar to behaviorism, Social Cognitive Theory adds a cognitive dimension by accounting for attention, reasoning, and memory.

For observational learning—or modeling—to be successful, several processes must occur:

Attention: The learner must focus on the model’s behavior.
Retention: The learner must be able to remember what they observed.
Reproduction: The learner must have the ability to perform the behavior themselves.
Motivation: The learner must want to imitate the behavior, which depends on whether the model was rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) or punished (vicarious punishment).

A simple way to remember this process is the phrase “monkey see, monkey do,” though Bandura’s work highlights the deeper cognitive processes involved.

Self-Efficacy

A large aspect of performing a new behavior is self-efficacy. Hoose (n.d.) defines this as the level of confidence a person has in their abilities. This is usually developed through experience and it impacts how a person approaches challenges. If a person has low self-efficacy, then they may not believe they are capable of reproducing the model’s behavior and may not even try. This also incorporates the locus of control theory. This is about internal control and external control beliefs. If someone has an internal locus of control then they believe their effort directly impacts the outcome. External locus of control is the belief that outcomes are influenced by factors outside of one’s control, therefore those with an external locus of control belief think that other people and pure luck are in control of anything that happens.

A person’s self-efficacy is determined by a few factors. Bandura (1977) writes about how personal performance and accomplishments are the most powerful and the most impactful on self-efficacy. Many successes raise a person’s self-efficacy while failures lower it. However, repeated successes followed by a failure can negate the impact of that failure. In fact, overcoming an occasional failure can strengthen the person’s persistence in the future in the face of adversity. Vicarious experiences can also impact a person’s self-efficacy because it creates the expectation that they can be like the model if they persist. Further, verbal persuasion can play a role in self-efficacy. People can be led through the power of suggestion that they are capable, however this has a much smaller impact on self-efficacy than personal experiences. Lastly, a person’s psychological state or stress level can impact their self-efficacy.

Limitations of Cognitivism

The processes described in cognitivism take time. One example is the spiral curriculum in which concepts must be revisited many times in order to develop a full concept (Smith, 2019). However, there is so much development happening quickly today that knowledge is rapidly being updated and can become obsolete very quickly which suggests that learning in this way takes too long (AlDadouh et al., 2015).
LaMorte (2019) describes some concerns about the impact of the environment. Cognitivism suggests that the environment plays a role in human perception and learning. Therefore, changes in the environment would lead to changes in a person and their learning. That is not always the case. Further, the brain, a person’s behavior, and their environment work together to impact perception. Cognitivism doesn’t address which factors are most important to learning.
Cognitivism suggests that learning occurs through cognitive processes including attention, memory, and reasoning. However, it does not account for any learning that incorporates technology or in which learning is stored within technology (Siemens, 2005).
Emotion, motivation, and culture are mentioned minimally in cognitivism theories and they likely are quite impactful on people’s learning (LaMorte, 2019).

Strengths of Cognitivism

The cognitivism theory utilizes brain and neurological science, including the study of attention and memory (Michela, 2020).
It also incorporates some behaviorism aspects but adds in the cognitive processes, which was a big concern with behaviorism (Hoose, n.d.).
Utilizing a spiral curriculum ensures that most students will be exposed to most of the essential concepts (Smith, 2019). Some concerns in education include students who move schools and the curriculums are different. If curriculums spiral, a topic will be revisited ensuring transient students do not miss entire parts of the curriculum.
Observational learning is intuitive and easily observable by anyone who spends time around young children (Hoose, n.d.). Cognitivism, and Bandura specifically, define this and describe how to use it effectively as a way of teaching and learning.
Cognitivism includes the concept of connecting new information to known information in schemas (Michela, 2020). Additionally, Bruner describes learning a process that can be transferred rather than memorizing facts is an important part of education (Smith, 2019). Both these concepts can be very helpful in easing the learning process with new concepts later on.

References

AlDadouh, A. A., Osório, A. J., & Portugal, S. C. (2015). Understanding knowledge network, learning and connectivism. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning,12(10), 3-21.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.

Bruner, J. S., & Postman, L. (1949). On the perception of incongruity: A paradigm. Journal of Personality, 18, 206-223.

Emory, B. (2019). Cognitive load theory and instructional message design. In M. Ramlatchan (Ed.), Instructional message design: Theory, research, and practice, 1. Norfolk, VA: Kindle Direct Publishing.

Hoose, N. A. (n.d.) Social cognitive learning theory. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/edpsy/chapter/social-cognitive-learning-theory/

Johnson. A. (n.d.). Bruner’s learning theory. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/38298166/BRUNERS_LEARNING_THEORY

LaMorte, W.W. (2019). The social cognitive theory. Boston University School of Public Health. https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/behavioralchangetheories5.html#:~:text=Limitations%20of%20the%20model%20include,person%2C%20behavior%2C%20and%20environment

Mayer, R. (2009). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.https://elearning.olemiss.edu/12-principles-of-multimedia-learning/

Michela, E. (2020). Cognitivism. In R. Kimmons & scaskurlu (Eds.), The students' guide to learning design and research. EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism

Pappas, C. (2016). 7 tips to reduce cognitive overload in eLearning. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/7-tips-reduce-cognitive-overload-elearning

Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. https://jotamac.typepad.com/jotamacs_weblog/files/Connectivism.pdf

Smith, M. K. (2019). Jerome Bruner and the process of education. Infed.org. https://infed.org/mobi/jerome-bruner-and-the-process-of-education/

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