Cognitivism
The cognitivism theory on learning focuses on how students are able to use mental strategies to guide their own learning. Michela (2020) writes about how research into cognitivism began in the 1920s and 1930s by Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Kohler, and Ivan Krechevsky. However, the theory didn’t get much attention in the education community until the 1950s. In this learning theory researchers suggest that a person perceives some stimulus through their senses and the information goes into their working memory. Then, attention jumps in to help select which bits of sensory information to ignore and which to utilize.
Next, executive control processes help a person make meaning of the information from the stimulus (Michela, 2020). For example, one must determine if they should continue to pay attention to the information and commit it to long term memory, or not. Memory is the process in which the brain encodes and recalls information (Emory, 2019).
Long Term Memory
Long term memory is where information that has been learned is stored in an organized way (Emory, 2019). Information can be stored as verbal representations or as visual images (Michela, 2020).
Encoding
Michela (2020) defines encoding as the process of information that is being rehearsed in the working memory getting moved into long term memory. Pieces of information are connected to already known information in schemas within the brain. This is critical for recalling information later because when one piece of information is activated, it will activate the connected information in the schema as well. The process of adding or linking new information to existing information is called elaboration. This linking process also helps ease the learning process because it is easier to make sense of new information using the familiar structure of something they have learned in the past.
Cognitive Load
Emory (2019) defines cognitive load as the amount of information a person can process accurately in their short term/working memory. Most research suggests that 4-7 bits of information can be processed simultaneously, but that can vary. If too much information is presented to a student, they can get overloaded and some of the information is lost because they can’t process it all. Teachers and instructional designers must carefully plan instruction to maximize the use of the short term memory and prevent cognitive overload.
Learning Theorists
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura is credited with the Social Cognitive Theory. Hoose (n.d.) writes about Bandura’s theory and describes how Bandura thought cognitive factors like thinking and reasoning as well as the environment were critical aspects in learning. Bandura published work in 1977 and continued through the 1990s.
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First, he describes reciprocal determinism. This is the idea that behavior, context, and cognitive processes are influencing one another and they all influence learning (Hoose, n.d.).
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Hoose (n.d.) goes on to describe observational learning. This is when a person learns by watching someone else’s behavior and the consequences of that behavior. A person may replicate or imitate the observed behavior if the person they were watching was reinforced. Alternatively, if a person is punished then the behavior is less likely to be imitated. This is very similar to behaviorism, however it accounts for some cognitive reasoning and processes. In order for observational learning, or modeling, to be successful a few things must happen. First, one must focus and pay attention to the model. Next, one must be able to retain or remember what was observed. Further, one must be able to perform and reproduce the behavior themselves. Last, one must be motivated to replicate the behavior of the model. That depends on whether the behavior was reinforced. If it was, this is called vicarious reinforcement and leads to motivation to copy the model. Vicarious punishment could also happen if the model was punished and likely the observer would not be motivated to copy the behavior.
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It may be helpful to remember modeling as monkey see, monkey do.
Self-Efficacy
A large aspect of performing a new behavior is self-efficacy. Hoose (n.d.) defines this as the level of confidence a person has in their abilities. This is usually developed through experience and it impacts how a person approaches challenges. If a person has low self-efficacy, then they may not believe they are capable of reproducing the model’s behavior and may not even try. This also incorporates the locus of control theory. This is about internal control and external control beliefs. If someone has an internal locus of control then they believe their effort directly impacts the outcome. External locus of control is the belief that outcomes are influenced by factors outside of one’s control, therefore those with an external locus of control belief think that other people and pure luck are in control of anything that happens.
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A person’s self-efficacy is determined by a few factors. Bandura (1977) writes about how personal performance and accomplishments are the most powerful and the most impactful on self-efficacy. Many successes raise a person’s self-efficacy while failures lower it. However, repeated successes followed by a failure can negate the impact of that failure. In fact, overcoming an occasional failure can strengthen the person’s persistence in the future in the face of adversity. Vicarious experiences can also impact a person’s self-efficacy because it creates the expectation that they can be like the model if they persist. Further, verbal persuasion can play a role in self-efficacy. People can be led through the power of suggestion that they are capable, however this has a much smaller impact on self-efficacy than personal experiences. Lastly, a person’s psychological state or stress level can impact their self-efficacy.
Limitations of Cognitivism
The processes described in cognitivism take time. One example is the spiral curriculum in which concepts must be revisited many times in order to develop a full concept (Smith, 2019). However, there is so much development happening quickly today that knowledge is rapidly being updated and can become obsolete very quickly which suggests that learning in this way takes too long (AlDadouh et al., 2015).
LaMorte (2019) describes some concerns about the impact of the environment. Cognitivism suggests that the environment plays a role in human perception and learning. Therefore, changes in the environment would lead to changes in a person and their learning. That is not always the case. Further, the brain, a person’s behavior, and their environment work together to impact perception. Cognitivism doesn’t address which factors are most important to learning.
Cognitivism suggests that learning occurs through cognitive processes including attention, memory, and reasoning. However, it does not account for any learning that incorporates technology or in which learning is stored within technology (Siemens, 2005).
Emotion, motivation, and culture are mentioned minimally in cognitivism theories and they likely are quite impactful on people’s learning (LaMorte, 2019).
Strengths of Cognitivism
The cognitivism theory utilizes brain and neurological science, including the study of attention and memory (Michela, 2020).
It also incorporates some behaviorism aspects but adds in the cognitive processes, which was a big concern with behaviorism (Hoose, n.d.).
Utilizing a spiral curriculum ensures that most students will be exposed to most of the essential concepts (Smith, 2019). Some concerns in education include students who move schools and the curriculums are different. If curriculums spiral, a topic will be revisited ensuring transient students do not miss entire parts of the curriculum.
Observational learning is intuitive and easily observable by anyone who spends time around young children (Hoose, n.d.). Cognitivism, and Bandura specifically, define this and describe how to use it effectively as a way of teaching and learning.
Cognitivism includes the concept of connecting new information to known information in schemas (Michela, 2020). Additionally, Bruner describes learning a process that can be transferred rather than memorizing facts is an important part of education (Smith, 2019). Both these concepts can be very helpful in easing the learning process with new concepts later on.
References
AlDadouh, A. A., Osório, A. J., & Portugal, S. C. (2015). Understanding knowledge network, learning and connectivism. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning,12(10), 3-21.
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Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
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Bruner, J. S., & Postman, L. (1949). On the perception of incongruity: A paradigm. Journal of Personality, 18, 206-223.
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Emory, B. (2019). Cognitive load theory and instructional message design. In M. Ramlatchan (Ed.), Instructional message design: Theory, research, and practice, 1. Norfolk, VA: Kindle Direct Publishing.
Hoose, N. A. (n.d.) Social cognitive learning theory. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/edpsy/chapter/social-cognitive-learning-theory/
Johnson. A. (n.d.). Bruner’s learning theory. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/38298166/BRUNERS_LEARNING_THEORY
LaMorte, W.W. (2019). The social cognitive theory. Boston University School of Public Health. https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/behavioralchangetheories5.html#:~:text=Limitations%20of%20the%20model%20include,person%2C%20behavior%2C%20and%20environment
Mayer, R. (2009). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.https://elearning.olemiss.edu/12-principles-of-multimedia-learning/
Michela, E. (2020). Cognitivism. In R. Kimmons & scaskurlu (Eds.), The students' guide to learning design and research. EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism
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Pappas, C. (2016). 7 tips to reduce cognitive overload in eLearning. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/7-tips-reduce-cognitive-overload-elearning
Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. https://jotamac.typepad.com/jotamacs_weblog/files/Connectivism.pdf
Smith, M. K. (2019). Jerome Bruner and the process of education. Infed.org. https://infed.org/mobi/jerome-bruner-and-the-process-of-education/